Chapter 1

Daphne Tseng

1 Chapter 1

Music Elements, Critical Listening, and Course Overview

By Bethanie L. Hansen and Cathy Silverman

Figure 1.1 A man wearing headphones enjoys the music

“Thewholeproblemcanbestatedquitesimplybyasking,‘Isthereameaningtomusic?’My answer would be, ‘Yes.’ And ‘Can you state in so many words what the meaning is?’ My answer to that would be, ‘No.’”
– Aaron Copland (Copland, Rich, and Schuman 9)

This book is about listening, appreciating, understanding, and discussing music; it will explore the history, aesthetics, and criticism of music so that you will better understand the background and meaning of Western music. In studying this book and the supplementary listening examples, you will come away a more informed music-listener who can enjoy a broader spectrum of music from both the past and the present.

The musical world is full of so many selections that we could not possibly cover them all in this book. However, by completing this course of study, you will gain the tools and skills needed to critically listen to and consider a variety of musical aspects that can apply to any musical style. These tools include contextual information about composers, history, and musical styles. A solid foundation of musical terms and concepts, allow you to listen for key ideas in the music and to discuss what you are hearing.

Music is a product of its time. To understand music from the past, one must first learn to think like the people of its age. In fact, if music is the outward expression of the composers and cultures that shaped it, a solid understanding of historical context is necessary in order to appreciate the music of any era outside our own. In the chapters to come, you will learn about the middle ages through the twenty-first century. As you study this text and listen to the music examples, you will survey a broad overview of music in history and learn how cultural contexts can offer the perspective necessary to understand great music from any era.

During the next eight weeks in this music appreciation course, you will explore the following areas of music: Early Music (to 1600), the Baroque Era (1600-1750), the Classical Era (1750-1820), the Romantic Era (1800s), the Twentieth Century, Jazz, and World Music. You will find pieces you enjoy and pieces you do not; however, each chapter will help to facilitate listening comprehension and allow you to speak about music in a common language understood by professionals, enthusiasts, and amateurs alike.

What is Music?

Music is a language of its own with expressive and communicative elements. Music has been studied as an art, a science, a therapy, and a power. Music is sound organized in a meaningful way, and may include a melody, harmony, rhythm, and form. Music can be performed by one voice or instrument, or by many—and it can even be performed as silence. John Cage was a modern composer who created his piece 4’33” based on silence.

The ancient Greeks believed music was cosmically related to science and culture. They asserted that mathematical laws of music were the same as the laws that regulated harmony in all matters—from the spiral growth patterns seen in nature to geometry and good government. This magical connection between sound and form was thought to be integral in maintaining harmony at all levels of society. Various musical modes were used to create desired moods such as calming or stimulating. Believing these modes resonated within the endocrine system in the human body, the ancient Greeks embraced music as much more than an expressive art.

The power of music is not merely abstract but is also physical. Physicists and other scientists have concluded that all matter is composed of energy or vibration. The air vibrations of sound are real and measurable, capable of shattering glass. Music and other sounds cause all kinds of sympathetic vibratory resonances within objects at a distance.

Contemporary research into sounds of a lower frequency than is audible to the human ear suggests that nausea or headaches can be caused by sounds produced by industrial machinery from a distance. Ex; Black Hole sound w/text (34sec) Black Hole Sound w/Michio Kaku, CNN(Beg.-1:15min)

Rhythm, another measurable force, is the rationale behind commanding officers’ ordering troops to break step when crossing a bridge marching in unison. The rhythmic effect of marching in step can lead to the collapse of the bridge. For more information about the science of music, please visit The Exploratorium.

Although music therapy is a new concept to the West, music has been used as a healing power for thousands of years by non-Western traditional cultures. Most evidence of the use of music in primitive/archaic cultures demonstrates that music was primarily used in sacred rituals. These rituals were intended to attract the attention of nature’s spirits, to heal the sick, to bring good fortune, and to repel negative forces. The shaman could be called humanity’s original “multimedia artist,” using music, dance, visual art, and theatre to bring balance to communities and the environment. Today, music is used in developed societies as a clinical therapy to promote wellness, manage stress, alleviate pain, express feelings, enhance memory, improve concentration, and promote physical rehabilitation (American Music Therapy Association). For more information about the healing power of music and modern music therapy, please visit the American Music Therapy Association’s website.

Music Elements

To understand various musical aspects throughout Music Appreciation, you must first understand the language of music. You will need to know several key terms and be comfortable using them throughout this course. Practice and use these terms during your listening exercises, this will help you become skillful at using them to discuss music in an intelligent way.

In the following section, music terms are presented, along with links to audio examples. As you read about these terms, consider listening to the related sound clips for illustrations of their meaning. Then, complete the self-check exercises to verify your understanding of key terms. Practice describing music using these terms any time you listen to music

Throughout this book, you will find the tool symbol to highlight specific terms or tools to describe music listening. If you lose track of a music term, just look for these symbols.

Music Terms

Instrumentation describes what kind of instrument or voice produced the music. It may be a solo piano or an entire orchestra of wind instruments, string instruments, and percussion. Each instrument or voice has unique and recognizable sounds or qualities. Listen to audio or video introductions to a few instruments, presented by the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, by clicking the following instrument terms to follow the hyperlink.

Figure 1.12 Clip art image of a man playing string bass, used with permission from Microsoft.

Each instrument belongs to a family: woodwinds, brass, strings, percussion, or keyboards.

The Kennedy Center has an excellent interactive tool to help you explore the instruments of the orchestra from the Baroque period through the present. The tool is engaging and interesting, using a baseball game metaphor. Try The Kennedy Center’s “Perfect Pitch” tool to learn more.

Musical expression generally refers to the communicative power in music. This communication is best conveyed through changing tempos, meaning that the music gradually or suddenly changes speeds, dynamics, or both.

Figure 1.13 A woman playing classical guitar

Timbre, or tone quality, describes the quality of a musical sound. Timbre is generally discussed using adjectives, like “bright,” “dark,” “buzzy,” “airy,” “thin,” and “smooth.” Many different adjectives can be effectively used to describe timbre, based on your perceptions and opinions about what you hear in the sound. Not everyone will describe specific instrumental or vocal timbres the same way.

The difference between a nylon-stringed classical guitar and an electric guitar with the distortion knob turned up provides a tangible illustration of timbre. The classical guitar produces a mellow, warm timbre. One might describe it as peaceful-sounding and smooth. Classical guitars are often associated with folk music and formal concerts.

In contrast, the distorted electric guitar produces a bright, cold, and edgy timbre. One could even describe it as rough sounding or aggressive. Electric guitars are most often associated with rock and alternative music

.Figure 1.14 A man with an electric guitar

Both classical guitar and electric guitar timbres are easily recognized and distinctly different from each other. Yet, the terms used to describe these two different timbres may vary from one person to the next.

Texture is a term that describes what is going on in the music at any moment. Musical texture is the way that melody, harmony, and rhythm work together. Texture can be described in musical terms, such as monophonic, homophonic, and polyphonic—or with adjectives, like “thin,” “thick,” and “rich.”

A melody is a recognizable line of music that includes different notes, or pitches, and rhythms in an organized way. A melody may be simple or complex, and it may

be comprised of smaller pieces called “motifs.” Beethoven’s Symphony no. 5, for example, includes a melody based on repeated motifs. Listen to an example of the allegro con brio from Beethoven’s Symphony no. 5 in C minor, and take notice of the motif “da-da-da- daaaaa,” (the first four notes of the symphony) as you hear it pass by. After several statements of this smaller motif, the smaller motivic pieces begin to form a recognizable melody. The melody stands out from the background musical material because it is stronger, louder, and played more aggressively.

Harmony refers to the vertical relationship between pitches and is created when two or more notes are sounded at the same time. Two main types of harmony generally exist in Western music—homophony and polyphony. One additional musical texture, monophony, does not include any harmony.

Monophonic texture, also called monophony, involves only one melody with no harmony. For example some types of early chant, a solo singer, or an unaccompanied instrument—like a trumpet or flute. Listen to “Gute Nacht for Trumpet (Good Night),” an example of monophony, performed on solo trumpet by Brian McWhorter.
Homophonic texture, also called homophony, involves one clear melody with harmony or background material. In homophony, both the melody and its harmony can share similar rhythms. An example of homophony would be a church hymn arranged for four voices, a Scott Joplin rag such as “The Easy Winners,” or a pop song with a solo vocalist. In homophony, the background material may be a chord accompaniment or harmony designed to support the main melody as background material. Listen to a performance of Handel’s “Hallelujah” chorus. The chorus begins with a short orchestra introduction, followed by the choir singing “Hallelujah” in homophony.
Polyphonic texture, also called polyphony, involves more than one specific melody. Two or more melodies may compete for importance. Rounds, canons, fugues, and many selections from the Baroque period, provide good examples of polyphony. Listen to a Bach fugue. In this fugue, you will hear a single melody on the piano. Shortly after it begins, another melody of equal importance will begin. Soon, there are several melodies played at the same time, and it will become increasingly difficult to identify which melody is more important.

When considering musical texture, ask yourself these questions:

What instruments or voices am I hearing?
Do I hear one melody, or more than one?
Are the extra voices or instruments changing together or at different times?
Is it difficult to identify the melody, perhaps because there are several melodies happening at once?

Tempo/time is the speed of the music. Tempo can change during a piece to add expression, such as a rubato, or slowing of the tempo. Speeding up the tempo is called an accelerando, and slowing down gradually is called a ritardando. Time signature is a related concept that explains which pulses are emphasized or “heavier” than others are. In this piece, Carmina Burana: “Chramer, gip die varwe mir, by Carl Orff, high choir voices sing at a fast tempo. Then, after the short statement of the melody, voices stop singing and instruments play briefly. During the instrumental section, the tempo seems to slow down. If you would like an additional example, watch a performance of Orff’s Carmina Burana: “OFortuna.” In this example, singers begin at a slow tempo and then suddenly speed up to a much faster tempo. This second example is also a great illustration of sudden dynamic changes, because the singers move from a loud volume to a much softer one, then back to a louder volume.

Dynamics refer to the changing volume levels of musical sounds. Dynamics can range from softer than piano (soft or quiet) to fortissimo possibile (loudest possible). Dynamics can also change, getting louder (crescendo) and getting softer (diminuendo). Dynamics and changing dynamics give the music expression, make it interesting, and add variety. For an example of sudden dynamic changes, listen to Joseph Haydn’s Finale: Allegro con spirito from Symphony no. 88. The symphony begins softly (piano). After a few statements of the melody, the entire orchestra suddenly plays more loudly (forte).

Form is the organization and structure of a musical selection. The form of a work may include repeating large sections, repeating a theme or motif, or non-repeating sections. Large parts within a musical form are usually labeled with capital letters, like “A” and “B,” so we can discuss them. Within these larger sections, smaller parts may be labeled with lower-case letters, like “a” and “b” to further designate repeated and non-repeated sections. Form will be presented in all sections of this book because the form of musical works has changed often over time.

Music Notation

Music notation allows different people to reproduce musical sounds and musical works written by others. Notes and rhythms tell musicians what to play and how long to play it. Articulation markings give performers direction about how the note or rhythm should be played more specifically, and dynamic markings tell musicians what volume to play (or sing). Throughout this text, music theory is presented, as needed, to give you increased understandings of musical examples. Music theory, however, is a subject of its own and is not the emphasis of Music Appreciation.

Visit MusicTheory.net to explore the following music topics:

The staff, clef, and ledger lines
Note duration
Measures and time signatures
Rest duration
Dots and ties
Simple and compound meter
Odd meter

Genres

Musical genres are broad categories used to classify music. Some genres that will be presented in Music Appreciation include Western classical and art music, world music, jazz, rock, pop, and other modern genres. Sometimes, music is grouped by instrumentation as a genre, such as “symphony” or “string quartet.”

Styles

Within musical genres, music can be further classified into specific styles. Western classical music is not all from the Classic era. In fact, Western classical music includes medieval and early music, Renaissance music, Baroque music, Classical music, Romantic period music, and other period-specific music. Within each period, many styles may exist including ballads, operas, concertos, solo works, and more. Music styles consist of combined musical elements, instrumentation, timbre, texture, tempo, dynamics, form, and mood. As you read this text, you will learn about many styles of music that were new in their cultural contexts and have endured as specific musical styles through the present day.

Critical Listening

Before you begin to listen, set yourself up for success by obtaining a quality pair of headphones, speakers, or related amplification devices. Laptop speakers are not made for a quality music listening experience, so carefully consider what equipment you will use throughout this course.

There is a difference between hearing and listening. Hearing means that sound enters the ear, but the brain does not necessarily process its meaning. When the

brain is engaged,noticing, and attending to the sound, critical listening can happen. The best way to listen to music throughout this course is to use your growing skills to identify specific music elements and to follow these throughout a listening selection.

Listening Goals

Each week, specific listening goals will be presented along with

music terms and a listening map. Review the terms listed and use the listening map as a tool to meet listening goals. What are listening maps? Listening maps are written tools used to explain the form of a piece of music, so that listeners understand what they are hearing in a given piece. As you listen to music examples, follow the listening maps illustrated throughout the text. Some listening maps are simple charts to help guide listening, like the following chart produced by the Atlanta Symphony. Listen to the first movement of Dmitri Shostakovich’s Symphony no. 9 in E flat while following the listening map.

Figure 1.17 Listening map of the first movement of Dmitri Shostakovich’s Symphony no. 9 in E flat, from AtlantaSymphony.org.

How do I make connections to my own ideas about music and my modern music listening? Each time you learn a new musical concept in this course, practice listening for that concept in one of the assigned listening examples. Then, try listening for the same concept in a modern or popular piece of music during the week. For example, after you listen to identify the sounds of specific instruments during our course, see how many instruments you can identify in your favorite rock, country, hip-hop, rap, or other musical selection. By applying music listening skills to your favorite music, you will become more comfortable and adept at using your new skills.

Closing

Music Appreciation is organized chronologically, presenting a brief overview of music in its context throughout history. As you move through this course, you will read about history and culture, composers, and major musical works to form a more complete picture of what influenced a composer, a community, and a historical period. With history as your tool, you can try to listen as a member of the composer’s community, with the mentality of the people of its era. This kind of perspective could lead you to feel the excitement and joy a musical work can inspire. Learn the music terms as they are introduced, and listen to musical examples as much as possible to practice using these tools. Get involved in your class, and participate in discussions about the music. Before you know it, you will be able to discuss music with confidence.

Sound, Music, and the Environment

This week, watch the 25-minute video “Sound, Music, and the Environment,” part of the Annenberg Learner video series we will be viewing throughout the text.

Additional Resources

This web resource list was adapted from Bedford/St. Martin’s website:

Alabama

Alabama Symphony Orchestra, Birmingham http://www.alabamasym phony.org/

Mobile Symphony Orchestra http://www.mobilesymph ony.org/

Alaska

Anchorage Symphony Orchestra http://www.anchoragesy mphony.org/

Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra http://www.fairbankssym phony.org/

Juneau Symphony http://www.juneausymph ony.org/

Arizona

Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra http://www.flagstaffsymp hony.org/

The Phoenix Symphony http://www.phoenixsymp hony.org/

Tucson Symphony Orchestra http://www.tucsonsymph ony.org/

Arkansas

Arkansas Symphony Orchestra, Little Rock http://www.arkansassym phony.org/

California

Los Angeles Philharmonic http://www.laphil.com/

Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra & Opera http://2intune.org/

San Diego Symphony http://www.sandiegosym phony.org/

San Francisco Symphony http://www.sfsymphony.o rg/

Colorado

Colorado Springs Philharmonic http://www.csphilharmon ic.org/

Colorado Symphony Orchestra, Denver http://www.coloradosymp hony.org/

Connecticut

Hartford Symphony Orchestra http://www.hartfordsymp hony.org/

Delaware

Delaware Symphony Orchestra, Wilmington http://www.delawaresym phony.org/

District of Columbia

National Symphony Orchestra, Washington, DC

http://www.kennedy- center.org/nso/

Florida

Miami Symphony Orchestra http://www.miamisympho ny.org/

Florida Orchestra, Tampa Bay area http://www.floridaorchest ra.org/

Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra http://www.jaxsymphony. org/

Orlando Philharmonic Orchestra http://www.orlandophil.or g/

Pensacola Symphony Orchestra http://www.pensacolasy mphony.com/

Georgia

Atlanta Symphony Orchestra http://www.atlantasymph ony.org/

Hawaii

Hawaii Symphony Orchestra http://hawaiisymphonyor chestra.org/

Idaho

Boise Philharmonic http://www.boisephilhar monic.org/

Illinois

Chicago Symphony Orchestra http://www.cso.org/

Illinois Symphony Orchestra http://www.ilsymphony.or g/

Indiana

Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra http://www.indianapoliss ymphony.org/

Iowa

Orchestra Iowa (Eastern Iowa) http://www.artsiowa.com

/orchestra/

Des Moines Symphony http://www.dmsymphony. org/

Sioux City Symphony Orchestra http://www.siouxcitysymp hony.org/

Kansas

Wichita Symphony Orchestra http://wichitasymphony.o rg/

Kentucky

Louisville Orchestra http://www.louisvilleorch estra.org/

Louisiana

Louisiana Philharmonic Orchestra, New Orleans http://www.lpomusic.com

Shreveport Symphony Orchestra http://www.shreveportsy mphony.com/

Maine

Bangor Symphony Orchestra http://www.bangorsymph ony.org/

Portland Symphony Orchestra http://www.portlandsymp hony.org/

Maryland

Baltimore Symphony Orchestra http://www.bsomusic.org

Massachusetts

Boston Classical Orchestra http://www.bostonclassic alorchestra.org/

Boston Symphony Orchestra http://www.bso.org/

Boston Philharmonic http://www.bostonphil.or g

Springfield Symphony Orchestra http://www.springfieldsy mphony.org/

Michigan

Detroit Symphony Orchestra http://www.dso.org/

Minnesota Minnesota Orchestra

http://www.minnesotaorc hestra.org/

Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra http://www.thespco.org/

Mississippi

Mississippi Symphony Orchestra, Jackson http://www.msorchestra. com/

Missouri

Kansas City Symphony http://www.kcsymphony. org/

Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra http://www.stlsymphony. org/

Montana

Billings Symphony Orchestra & Chorale http://www.billingssymph ony.org/

Helena Symphony http://www.helenasymph ony.org/

Nebraska

Omaha Symphony http://www.omahasymph ony.org/

Nevada

Las Vegas Philharmonic http://lvphil.org/

New Hampshire New Hampshire

Philharmonic Orchestra, Manchester http://www.nhphil.org/

New Jersey

New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, Newark http://www.njsymphony.o rg/

New Mexico

New Mexico Philharmonic http://www.nmphil.org/

New York

Albany Symphony http://www.albanysymph ony.com/

Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra http://www.bpo.org/

New York Philharmonic http://nyphil.org/

Symphony Syracuse http://www.symphonysyr acuse.org/

North Carolina

Charlotte Symphony

http://www.charlottesym phony.org/

North Carolina Symphony, Raleigh http://www.ncsymphony. org/

Ohio

Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra http://www.cincinnatisym phony.org/

Cleveland Orchestra http://www.clevelandorch estra.com/

Columbus Symphony Orchestra http://www.columbussym phony.com/

Oklahoma

Oklahoma City Philharmonic http://www.okcphilharmo nic.org/

Oregon

Oregon Symphony, Portland http://www.orsymphony.o rg/

Pennsylvania

Philadelphia Orchestra http://www.philorch.org/

Pittsburgh Symphony http://www.pittsburghsy mphony.org/

Rhode Island

Rhode Island Philharmonic, Providence http://www.ri- philharmonic.org/

South Carolina

Charleston Symphony Orchestra http://www.charlestonsy mphony.com/

South Dakota

South Dakota Symphony Orchestra, Sioux Falls http://www.sdsymphony. org/

Tennessee

Knoxville Symphony Orchestra http://www.knoxvillesymp hony.com/

Memphis Symphony Orchestra http://www.memphissym phony.org/

Nashville Symphony http://www.nashvillesym phony.org/

Texas

Dallas Symphony Orchestra https://www.mydso.com/

El Paso Symphony Orchestra http://www.epso.org/

Houston Symphony http://www.houstonsymp hony.org/

Utah

Utah Symphony and Opera, Salt Lake City http://www.usuo.org/

Vermont

Vermont Symphony Orchestra, Burlington http://www.vso.org/

Virginia

Richmond Symphony http://www.richmondsym phony.com/

Washington Seattle Symphony http://www.seattlesymph ony.org/

Spokane Symphony Orchestra http://www.spokanesymp hony.org/

West Virginia

West Virginia Symphony Orchestra, Charleston http://www.wvsymphony. org/

Wisconsin

Madison Symphony Orchestra http://www.madisonsymp hony.org/

Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra http://www.mso.org/

Wyoming

Cheyenne Symphony Orchestra http://www.cheyennesym phony.org/

Wyoming Symphony Orchestra, Casper http://www.wyomingsymp hony.org/

Works Consulted

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<http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=saxophone&ctt=1#ai:MP900384844|mt:2|>.

American Music Therapy Association. American Music Therapy Association Website.

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<http://www.musictherapy.org/>.

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<http://server3.pianosociety.com/protected/bach-bwv954-breemer.mp3>.

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Berio, Luciano. Gute Nacht for Trumpet. 1986. Perf. Brian McWhorter. 2006. Music Online: Classical Music Library. Alexander Street Press. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

<http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/7 57095>.

“Cello.” DSO Kids. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Web. 4 Jan. 2017.

<https://www.mydso.com/dso-kids/learn-and-listen/instruments/cello>.

Cello, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=cello&ctt=1#ai:MP900385375|mt:2|>.

Child playing a flute, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept.

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“Clarinet.” DSO Kids. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Web. 4 Jan. 2017.

<https://www.mydso.com/dso-kids/learn-and-listen/instruments/clarinet>.

Classic Guitar Sample. Internet Archive. Internet Archive, n.d. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.

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Construction tools sign, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept.

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Copland, Aaron, Alan Rich, and William Schuman. What To Listen For In Music. New York, NY: Signet Classics, 1999. Print.

Crookes, Luke. A Listening Guide to Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9. YouTube. 28 Aug. 2007.

Web. 30 Aug. 2012. <http://youtu.be/SLCXgZOGLVo>.

Distorted Guitar Sample. Internet Archive. Internet Archive, n.d. Web. 18 Mar. 2012.

<http://archive.org/details/DistortedGuitarSample>.

“Double Bass.” DSO Kids. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Web. 4 Jan. 2017.

<https://www.mydso.com/dso-kids/learn-and-listen/instruments/double-bass>.

Ewell, Terry B. “Introduction to Pitch Notation in Music.” Connexions. Rice University, 4 May 2009. Web. 2 Oct. 2014. <http://cnx.org/contents/c5ca8b28-7879-493c-8125- 2b26ea2a5454@1/Introduction_to_Pitch_Notation>.

“Flute.” DSO Kids. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Web. 4 Jan. 2017.

<https://www.mydso.com/dso-kids/learn-and-listen/instruments/flute>.

Handel, George Frideric. “Hallelujah.” The Messiah. 1741. Cond. Stephen Simon. Perf.

Handel Festival Orchestra of Washington D.C & Howard University Choir. 1985. Music Online: Classical Music Library. Alexander Street Press. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

<http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/1 78837>.

Haydn, Franz Joseph. Symphony No. 88 in G Major. 1787. Perf. London Mozart Players. 1989. Music Online: Classical Music Library. Alexander Street Press. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

<http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/1 79287>.

Kerman, Joseph and Gary Tomlinson. “Instruments of the Orchestra.” Listen: Seventh Edition. Bedford/St. Martin’s, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

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<http://www.atlantasymphony.org/aso/asoassets/downloadcenter/ASOstudent030 4_000.pdf>.

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Man wearing headphones and seated in front of a computer, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=listening%20to%20headphones&ctt=1#ai:MP9004225 41|mt:2|>.

Man wearing headphones, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?ex=2&qu=listening to music#ai:MP900442510|mt:2|>.

Man with an electric guitar, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. <http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=electric%20guitar&ctt=1#ai:MP900422708|mt:2|>.

Midsection of clarinet, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept.

2012. <http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=clarinet&ctt=1#ai:MP900182841|mt:2|>.

Music Genres List. N.p., 2012. Web. 11 Sept. 2012. <http://musicgenreslist.com/>.

Oboe, used with permission from Microsoft. “Images.” Office. Web. 4 Sept. 2012.

<http://office.microsoft.com/en- us/images/results.aspx?qu=oboe&ctt=1#ai:MP900175040|mt:2|>.

“Oboe.” DSO Kids. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Web. 4 Jan. 2017.

<https://www.mydso.com/dso-kids/learn-and-listen/instruments/oboe>.

Orff, Carl. “Chramer, gip die varwe mir.” Carmina Burana. 1936. Cond. Riccardo Muti. Perf.

Philharmonia Chorus and Philharmonia Orchestra. 2005. Music Online: Classical Music Library. Alexander Street Press. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

<http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/9 31082>.

—. “O Fortuna.” Carmina Burana. 1936. Cond. David Hill. Perf. Bournemouth Symphony Chorus. 2008. Music Online: Classical Music Library. Alexander Street Press. Web. 2 Oct. 2014.

<http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.alexanderstreet.com/music- performing-arts/view/work/962896>.

“Perfect Pitch.” ArtsEdge. The Kennedy Center. Web. 31 July 2012.

<http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/interactives/perfectpitch/>.

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